{"id":36449,"date":"2026-09-18T08:25:38","date_gmt":"2026-09-18T06:25:38","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/educationalevidence.com\/?p=36449"},"modified":"2026-09-18T08:32:59","modified_gmt":"2026-09-18T06:32:59","slug":"150-years-of-the-institucion-libre-de-ensenanza-ii-the-regeneration-project-of-spanish-liberalism","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/educationalevidence.com\/en\/150-years-of-the-institucion-libre-de-ensenanza-ii-the-regeneration-project-of-spanish-liberalism\/","title":{"rendered":"150 years of the Instituci\u00f3n Libre de Ense\u00f1anza (II). The regeneration project of Spanish liberalism"},"content":{"rendered":"

Residencia de Estudiantes, Madrid. \/ Photograph: Luis Garc\u00eda, CC BY-SA 3.0 es, https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?curid=36701368<\/p>\n

Photographs: Fundaci\u00f3n Ortega Mara\u00f1\u00f3n, Instituto Norteamericano de Madrid, Residencia de Estudiantes.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

License Creative Commons <\/a><\/p>\n

\"\"<\/strong><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Felipe J. de Vicente Alguer\u00f3<\/strong><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

The period that began after the Disaster of 1898 was to prove the most fruitful for institucionism. Krausism<\/strong> itself had changed. The image of the stern, austere Krausist disappeared. Gald\u00f3s<\/strong>, a sympathiser of the Krausists, portrayed one of them in La familia de Le\u00f3n Roch<\/em> (1876) as a man tormented by conflicts of conscience. More critically, Juan Valera<\/strong> devoted a novel to Krausism: Asclepigenia<\/em> (1878), a woman who had been in love with Proclus and who embodied the prototype of the sad, gaunt and badly dressed Krausist.<\/p>\n

Positivism was now triumphant and exerted an influence on Krausist philosophy: the great metaphysical and religious questions receded into the background. Science took first place and, with it, education. There was also a new element: a fascination with the Anglo-Saxon world, especially English education. Giner came into contact with this world through his friend Gumersindo de Azc\u00e1rate<\/strong>, whose second wife was of British descent. But those who did most to familiarise him with British customs were the Ria\u00f1o family, Juan Francisco and Emilia<\/strong>, friends of the Azc\u00e1rates. It was Emilia who introduced Giner to his admiration for English culture. The Ria\u00f1os lived the English way in their homes in Toledo and Madrid. Giner loved staying with them and was a regular at Do\u00f1a Emilia\u2019s salon. The prosaic, mediocre and even vulgar milieu of Madrid society paled beside the Ria\u00f1os\u2019 refined way of life<\/em>. Giner eventually came to speak and write English correctly.<\/p>\n

Giner used to say that Germany produced scholars, while England produced gentlemen<\/strong>. That was why he never ceased encouraging his followers to travel to England, above all to learn about the English educational model\u2014not so much that of the state schools as that of the elegant boarding schools, with particular interest in the Colleges of Oxford<\/strong>. English customs took such firm root in Giner that his breakfast invariably included porridge<\/em>, which he supplemented with garlic soup.<\/p>\n

1898 was a political milestone in Spain and in institucionism. Giner never took a direct part in politics; he was neither a member of parliament nor a senator, but many institucionists became prominent politicians of the period. The first of them was Joaqu\u00edn Costa<\/strong>, whom Giner helped during his difficult early years in Madrid by giving him work at the Instituci\u00f3n. Costismo owed much to institucionism. Moret and Montero R\u00edos<\/strong> were institucionists and went on to serve as presidents of the government.<\/p>\n

The institucionists had a project for regenerating Spain: the project of Spanish liberalism. It was what Vicente Cacho<\/strong>, the first great expert on the Instituci\u00f3n, called the \u201cmoral of Science\u201d. Against the revolutionary morality of socialists and anarchists and the traditionalist morality of Carlism, the liberals (the \u201cthird Spain\u201d) offered an alternative: education as a transformative instrument. But it was not simply a matter of taking schooling to every corner of the country. There was something more: the need to train an elite of scientists and intellectuals educated at foreign universities who could modernise the Spanish university and form a governing class capable of replacing the corrupt politicians of the system of political patronage known as caciquismo<\/em>.<\/p>\n

The institucionists had close ties with the Liberal Party and, later, also with the Partido Reformista founded by Melquiades \u00c1lvarez<\/strong> in 1912. In a sense, it represented a synthesis of the institucionists\u2019 regenerationist ideals: a democratisation of the Monarchy. A British-style Monarchy. For the time being, there would be no need to resort to a republic if the King were willing to change the Constitution. Aza\u00f1a<\/strong> initially joined this project, though he soon abandoned it, while Ortega<\/strong> above all threw himself into politics with his Liga para la Educaci\u00f3n Pol\u00edtica<\/em> (League for Political Education) (1913) and his book Meditaciones del Quijote<\/em> (1914), the germ of what came to be known as the Generation of 1914. He also admired Giner, whom he regarded as a \u201csecular saint\u201d. Melquiades \u00c1lvarez was a professor at the University of Oviedo, where there was the most important cluster of Krausists after Madrid. Leopoldo Alas \u201cClarin\u201d<\/strong>, a professor at Oviedo, had been a pupil of Giner, for whom he had extraordinary esteem.<\/p>\n

Through sympathetic politicians, institucionism gradually achieved some of its aims. In 1900, the Ministerio de Instrucci\u00f3n P\u00fablica y Bellas Artes (Ministry of Public Instruction and Fine Arts) was created by the government headed by the Conservative Silvela. This was one of the old demands of institucionism. Much has been made of the educational work of the Second Republic, as though nothing had been done before it. This is false. The Ministry\u2019s achievements were by no means negligible. Teacher-training programmes were reformed; the primary-school inspectorate was created (a very important instrument); teachers ceased to depend on local councils (which paid them late and badly) and became state civil servants; a career structure was established for them; and many schools were created\u2014obviously fewer than were needed.<\/p>\n

But the Ministry\u2019s great achievement in these years, inspired by Giner, was the Junta de Ampliaci\u00f3n de Estudios e Investigaciones Cient\u00edficas<\/strong> (Board for Advanced Studies and Scientific Research), created by the minister Amalio Gim\u00e9nez<\/strong> in 1907. For years, scholarships had already been awarded for study both in Spain and abroad. Now a dedicated body was created not only to send scholarship holders to other universities but also to promote scientific research in Spain. For readers who are curious, the end of the article contains a list of some of the Junta\u2019s scholarship recipients.<\/p>\n

The Junta wanted to contribute to the country\u2019s scientific modernisation, since Spain lagged far behind the most advanced European countries. To this end, it began awarding scholarships to students and teachers so that they could broaden their knowledge abroad. The first scholarships were awarded in 1910. By 1936, around 2,000 Spaniards had gone to the best foreign universities to further their studies. The first president of the Junta\u2019s governing board was Santiago Ram\u00f3n y Cajal<\/strong>, winner of the 1906 Nobel Prize in Medicine, who remained president until 1934, although he devoted little time to the post. He did not come from the Krausist tradition and was not sympathetic to it. The Junta\u2019s secretary and its real driving force was Jos\u00e9 Castillejo<\/strong> (1877\u20131945), a Krausist and disciple of Giner, whom he had met at the University of Madrid and who proposed him for the post; Castillejo held it throughout the Junta\u2019s entire existence. Castillejo was the archetype of the institucionist intellectual, from a bourgeois family that enabled him to study Law until he secured a chair in Roman Law. And, naturally, he married an Englishwoman, Irene Claremont<\/strong>, who went on to become a distinguished psychologist.<\/p>\n

Castillejo\u2019s organisational ability soon translated into new initiatives linked to the Junta, with the creation of new, specifically national research bodies that were intended to contribute to domestic scientific research through the work of scholarship holders returning from abroad. These were the Junta\u2019s principal creations:<\/p>\n

Centro de Estudios Hist\u00f3ricos (Centre for Historical Studies), created in 1910 and directed by Men\u00e9ndez Pidal<\/strong>, with several sections devoted to the Spanish language, Classical languages, literature, art and history.<\/p>\n

Instituto Nacional de Ciencias F\u00edsico Naturales (National Institute of Physical and Natural Sciences), also created in 1910 and directed by Ram\u00f3n y Cajal<\/strong>. It incorporated the Museo de Ciencias Naturales (Natural History Museum); the Instituto de F\u00edsica y Qu\u00edmica (Institute of Physics and Chemistry), directed by Blas Cabrera<\/strong>; the Museo de Antropolog\u00eda (Museum of Anthropology); and the Laboratorio de Investigaciones Biol\u00f3gicas (Laboratory of Biological Research).<\/p>\n

Asociaci\u00f3n de Laboratorios (Association of Laboratories), created in 1910 and directed by Leonardo Torres Quevedo<\/strong>, with the aim of securing collaboration among various laboratories that already existed.<\/p>\n

Other bodies linked to the Junta included: the Mathematics Seminar, the Palaeontological and Prehistoric Commission, and the Escuela Espa\u00f1ola en Roma (Spanish School in Rome) for Archaeology and History.<\/p>\n

\"\"
Left: the first premises of the Instituto Internacional de Boston, which was lent to the JAE for the first Residencia de Estudiantes and ultimately the Residencia de Se\u00f1oritas. Today it is the Fundaci\u00f3n Ortega Mara\u00f1\u00f3n. The pavilion on the right is an extension dating from the 1930s. On the adjoining plot (right), the impressive new premises of the Instituto Internacional de Boston were built; they housed the Instituto-Escuela between 1918 and 1928 and, from that date onwards, also the Residencia de Se\u00f1oritas. Today it is the Instituto Internacional norteamericano.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

 <\/p>\n

But undoubtedly the most distinctive and best-known creation of the JAE was the Residencia de Estudiantes<\/strong>, founded in 1910. It began with fifteen residents in a villa on Calle Fortuny owned by the Instituto Internacional de Boston, run by a group of energetic North American Protestant missionaries, who lent it to the Junta for the residence until it moved to the Altos del Hip\u00f3dromo, at the end of Calle Serrano, the Colina de los Chopos, as Juan Ram\u00f3n Jim\u00e9nez<\/strong>, an occasional guest of the residence, called it. Its director until the end (1936) was Alberto Jim\u00e9nez Fraud<\/strong> (1883\u20131964), another man who emerged from the institucionist group. A young gentleman from M\u00e1laga, Jim\u00e9nez Fraud arrived in Madrid in 1905 with a letter of recommendation for Giner<\/strong>, who was also from M\u00e1laga. He soon entered Giner\u2019s inner circle and that of his successor at the head of the Instituci\u00f3n, Manuel Bartolom\u00e9 Coss\u00edo<\/strong>, marrying his daughter Natalia, who had likewise been sent to England to acquire the manners of a lady<\/em>. Coss\u00edo and Jim\u00e9nez Fraud admired the British education system. Jim\u00e9nez Fraud made several trips to England between 1907 and 1909. Perhaps he was the greatest dandy<\/em> of them all.<\/p>\n

The villa on Calle Fortuny became the Residencia de Se\u00f1oritas<\/strong>, its female equivalent. Its director was Mar\u00eda de Maeztu<\/strong>, one of Ortega\u2019s outstanding pupils, a feminist avant la lettre<\/em> who did not come from the Krausist tradition, as she was a practising Catholic. Inspired by the atmosphere of the Instituci\u00f3n, the residences sought to be a home where students, teachers and men of culture lived together. The model was the British colleges. Good manners, elegance and even a certain degree of refinement were valued. There was no luxury in the rooms, but there was good taste. The tables always had clean tablecloths, crockery and glassware comme il faut<\/em>. Much as in the Giner-Coss\u00edo household: when Giner spotted a small stain on the table linen, he cleaned it himself.<\/p>\n

The Residencia de Estudiantes hosted the finest of Spanish intellectual life at the time: Ortega, Azor\u00edn, Unamuno, D\u2019Ors, Mara\u00f1\u00f3n\u2026<\/strong> And European intellectuals too; among those who gave lectures there were Einstein, Howard Carter, Marie Curie, Keynes and Le Corbusier\u2026<\/strong> Some also stayed at the Residencia de Se\u00f1oritas. From 1913 onwards, a publishing house operated there, whose first book was Ortega\u2019s Meditaciones del Quijote<\/em>, published in 1914. There were musical evenings, one with Garc\u00eda Lorca<\/strong> at the piano, and film evenings, with Bu\u00f1uel<\/strong> as commentator. An exquisite, somewhat snooty<\/em> education designed to form the elite that was to modernise Spain.<\/p>\n

The last great creation of the institucionists, after Giner\u2019s death (1915), was the Instituto-Escuela<\/strong><\/a>, created in 1918 when Santiago Alba, one of the leading figures on the left wing of liberalism, was Minister of Public Instruction. This educational institution brought the Institution\u2019s pedagogical model into public education. It should be noted that there had always been some secondary-school professors among the Krausist group, for example Giner\u2019s brother Hermenegildo, who spent some time teaching in Barcelona. It was housed in the new building constructed by the Instituto de Boston on the plot adjoining the Residencia de Se\u00f1oritas. In addition to educating young students, the Instituto-Escuela aimed to train secondary-school teachers, constituting a pioneering experiment in the Spanish education system. All the Instituto-Escuela\u2019s methods were based on those followed at the Instituci\u00f3n. Following the Instituto-Escuela model, similar centres were established in Barcelona, Valencia and Seville.<\/p>\n

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The Residencia before the Civil War<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

 <\/p>\n

The regenerationist project of Spanish liberalism failed, swallowed up by the two blocs that ultimately plunged the country into the Civil War. In 1936, the Institution\u2019s work was subjected to a purge, and although its directors remained in place, control was tightened. After 18 July, in an attempt to avoid worse consequences, the Residencia de Se\u00f1oritas flew the American flag, thanks to its links with the Instituto de Boston. At the Residencia de Estudiantes, the British flag was flown because it had housed a group of English students. Ortega<\/strong> rushed there for refuge, but militiamen led by Mar\u00eda Zambrano<\/strong> forced him to sign a declaration of allegiance to the Republic. As soon as he could, he fled Spain. Juan Ram\u00f3n Jim\u00e9nez<\/strong> did the same, making use of his good relationship with Aza\u00f1a. Melquiades \u00c1lvarez<\/strong>, with whom Ortega had taken his first steps in politics, was murdered by militiamen a few days after the war began, in Madrid\u2019s Modelo prison.<\/p>\n

Unamuno, who admired Giner and eventually had a room at the Residencia for his trips to Madrid, referred to the \u201chunos and hotros\u201d<\/strong> \u2014 \u201cthe ones and the others\u201d. There were \u201chunos and hotros\u201d at the Instituci\u00f3n too. When the war broke out, the Machado brothers, Antonio and Manuel<\/strong>, found themselves on opposite sides. Both had been pupils at the Instituci\u00f3n. Antonio lavished praise on the anarchist L\u00edster<\/strong>, while Manuel was devoted to Franco<\/strong>. In the final government of the Republican zone, there was an institucionist minister, no less a person than Bernardo Giner de los R\u00edos, Don Francisco\u2019s nephew. On the other side, in Franco\u2019s first government, there was another former pupil of the Instituci\u00f3n: Pedro Gonz\u00e1lez Bueno<\/strong>. It is clear, then, that the Instituci\u00f3n did not manage to ensure that all its pupils became good liberals. But that happens in even the best of families.<\/p>\n

The Junta de Ampliaci\u00f3n de Estudios became the Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cient\u00edficas<\/strong> (Higher Council for Scientific Research), following a rigorous purge of professors. The Residencia de Estudiantes became a residence for researchers working for the Council until, after extensive remodelling, it reopened its doors in 1986 as a cultural centre and residence for lecturers, where I have been fortunate enough to stay several times. The Residencia de Se\u00f1oritas became a women\u2019s Colegio Mayor and later the headquarters of the Fundaci\u00f3n Ortega Mara\u00f1\u00f3n. In the post-war period, the Instituto Internacional de Boston housed the United States Embassy, and in the 1950s the Colegio Estudio. Mar\u00eda de Maeztu (shaken by the murder of her brother Ramiro), Jim\u00e9nez Fraud and Castillejo (whom the militiamen were looking for in order to kill) fled when the war broke out. All three died outside Spain. Although they could have returned, they built professional lives abroad, with occasional trips back. They fitted into neither of the two Spains.<\/p>\n

Yes, there were genuine liberals in Spain (are there any left?). It was one of the first countries to have a liberal constitution, and a very advanced one for its time. But liberal culture never took root in society, as it did in England. Mara\u00f1\u00f3n used to say that being a liberal is, above all, an attitude, and other attitudes flourished here. The institucionists form part of the Spanish liberal tradition that began with the Cortes of C\u00e1diz<\/strong>. They were not the only ones, but they were important. They all wanted Spain to become a liberal democracy. At least, they tried. In Marxist terminology, they would be described as bourgeois. But things might have turned out better for us if those liberal bourgeois had prevailed over the \u201chunos and hotros\u201d.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Final note<\/strong><\/p>\n

\"\"
The author at the entrance to the Residencia de Estudiantes<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

These articles would not have been possible without the author\u2019s relationship with Professor Vicente Cacho Viu<\/strong> (1929\u20131998), Professor of History in Barcelona and at the Complutense. Cacho was a pioneer in the rigorous study of the Instituci\u00f3n, with his work La instituci\u00f3n Libre de Ense\u00f1anza. Or\u00edgenes y etapa universitaria<\/em>. It was published in 1962, when the Instituci\u00f3n was still suffering under the curse of Francoism. Professor Cacho later devoted himself to the study of the intellectual history of Spanish liberalism, and I caught his enthusiasm for the subject. I have not forgotten our conversations in Barcelona and Madrid, in his office at the Fundaci\u00f3n Ortega Mara\u00f1\u00f3n. He gave me access to the Foundation (of which he was a trustee) and arranged a meeting with Soledad Ortega, the master\u2019s daughter and honorary president of the Board of Trustees. My thanks also go to Professor Esteban Ayala<\/strong> (1938\u20132018) of Greenwich University; our long conversations at his home in London and in San Sebasti\u00e1n after his retirement helped me understand the Instituci\u00f3n\u2019s Anglo-Saxon background and the educational system that inspired it. For this article I have drawn above all on Jim\u00e9nez Landi<\/strong>\u2019s monumental four-volume work La Instituci\u00f3n Libre de Ense\u00f1anza y su ambiente<\/em>. On Spanish liberalism, I have written two books: Viva la Pepa. Los frutos del liberalismo espa\u00f1ol<\/em> and El catolicismo liberal en Espa\u00f1a<\/em>, in which I deal at length with Krausism, the Instituci\u00f3n and its regeneration project.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

LIST OF SOME JAE SCHOLARSHIP RECIPIENTS\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 <\/strong><\/p>\n

(Source: Jos\u00e9 Lu\u00eds Abell\u00e1n, Historia cr\u00edtica del pensamiento espa\u00f1ol, vol. V-2)<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
MEDICINE<\/strong><\/p>\n

Severo Ochoa, Francisco Grande Covi\u00e1n, Rodr\u00edguez Lafora, P\u00edo del R\u00edo Ortega, Jim\u00e9nez D\u00edaz, Te\u00f3filo Hernando, Isaac Costero, Felipe Jim\u00e9nez de As\u00faa, Lu\u00eds Calandre, Pedro Ara, La\u00edn Entralgo, Sixto Obrador, Orts Lorca, P\u00e9rez Lorca, Rof Carballo, Varela Gil, Novoa Santos, L\u00f3pez Ibor<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

PEDAGOGY<\/strong><\/p>\n

Lorenzo Luzurriaga, Manuel Bartolom\u00e9 Cos\u00edo, Jos\u00e9 Castillejo, Lu\u00eds de Zulueta, Rodolfo Llopis, Luis \u00c1lvarez Santullano, Virgilio Hueso, \u00c1ngel Lorca, Rosa Sensat, F\u00e9lix Mart\u00ed Alpera, A. Rubi\u00e9s, Pedro Rosell\u00f3<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY AND ART<\/strong><\/p>\n

Eduardo de Hinojosa, Pere Bosch Gimpera, Manuel G\u00f3mez Moreno, Claudio S\u00e1nchez-Albornoz, Ciriaco P\u00e9rez Bustamante, Ram\u00f3n Carande, Manuel de Ter\u00e1n, Castelao, Francisco Esteve, Francisco Murillo y Herrera, El\u00edas Tormo, Gonz\u00e1lez Mart\u00ed, Timoteo P\u00e9rez Rubio, Joaqu\u00edn Folch i Torres, Ernesto Halffter, Ru\u00edz Casaux, Rafael Benedito, Adolfo Salazar, Nicanor Zabaleta, Regino Sainz de la Maza, Conrado del Campo<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY, BIOLOGY AND MATHEMATICS<\/strong><\/p>\n

Enrique Moles, Blas Cabrera, Esteban Terradas, Eduardo Hern\u00e1ndez Pacheco, Jos\u00e9 Royo G\u00f3mez, Jos\u00e9 Cuatrecasas, Gabriel Mart\u00edn Cardoso, Julio Rey Pastor<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

PHILOSOPHY<\/strong><\/p>\n

Juli\u00e1n Besteiro, Ortega y Gasset, Garc\u00eda Morente, Xabier Zubiri, Bonilla San Mart\u00edn<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

LINGUISTS AND WRITERS<\/strong><\/p>\n

Navarro Tom\u00e1s, Juan Corominas, Emilio Garc\u00eda G\u00f3mez, Antonio Machado, Rafael Alberti, Ram\u00f3n P\u00e9rez de Ayala<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

\n
More:<\/strong><\/h6>\n

150 Years of the Instituci\u00f3n Libre de Ense\u00f1anza (I). The Origins<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

\n

Source:\u00a0educational EVIDENCE<\/strong><\/p>\n

Rights:\u00a0Creative Commons<\/strong><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

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