{"id":29996,"date":"2025-10-15T08:55:50","date_gmt":"2025-10-15T06:55:50","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/educationalevidence.com\/?p=29996"},"modified":"2025-11-24T09:20:31","modified_gmt":"2025-11-24T08:20:31","slug":"thrice-a-rebel-education-as-a-driver-of-economic-progress-and-gender-equality","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/educationalevidence.com\/en\/thrice-a-rebel-education-as-a-driver-of-economic-progress-and-gender-equality\/","title":{"rendered":"Thrice a rebel: education as a driver of economic progress and gender equality"},"content":{"rendered":"

Painting of the poem \u2018Divisa\u2019 by Maria Merc\u00e8 Mar\u00e7al, on the walls of the Institut Pere Calders in Cerdanyola del Vall\u00e8s (Barcelona). \/ Photo: Aurora Trigo<\/p>\n

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License Creative Commons <\/a><\/p>\n

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Aurora Trigo Catalina<\/strong><\/a><\/p>\n

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\u201cI thank chance for three gifts: to have been born a woman,
\nof the working class and an oppressed nation,
\nand the murky blue of being thrice rebellious\u201d<\/p>\n

(Adapted from Maria-Merc\u00e8 Mar\u00e7al, Catalan poet)<\/em><\/p>\n

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These verses by Maria-Merc\u00e8 Mar\u00e7al resonate powerfully in the lives of countless women who, to this day, face multiple layers of discrimination in the workplace<\/strong>. Being a woman, far from protecting us, often places us in a position of vulnerability within a system that continues to reproduce inequality. Fortunately, education remains, across all societies, the most effective mechanism for breaking cycles of poverty and exclusion. For women, it not only opens the door to better employment and higher incomes but also has the power to transform deeply rooted social structures. Even today, women systematically earn lower wages than men<\/strong> across the world, and rates of female poverty remain disproportionately high \u2014 particularly in contexts where access to education is limited (UN Women, 2023).<\/p>\n

The hypothesis guiding this article is straightforward: investing in education means investing in equality, since the gender gap in wages and opportunities that affects women can be substantially reduced through access to high-quality education.<\/p>\n

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The importance of education in determining future income<\/strong><\/h5>\n

Economic theory has repeatedly demonstrated that education is one of the most influential factors in determining individual income. Human capital theory, developed by economists such as Becker (1964) and Mincer (1974), holds that education enhances individual productivity, which in turn translates into higher wages throughout a person\u2019s working life.<\/p>\n

The concept of the \u201creturn to education\u201d<\/strong> has become one of the most widely used indicators in the economics of education to quantify the individual benefits of investing in human capital. According to Psacharopoulos and Patrinos (2018), each additional year of schooling is associated, on average, with an 8% to 10% increase in future earnings. This finding, confirmed across multiple contexts and methodologies, highlights that education is not only a fundamental right but also one of the most profitable investments for both individuals and society as a whole. The same authors note that, on average, women continue to experience equal or even slightly higher private rates of return than men \u2014 that is, each additional year of schooling tends to lead to a similar or greater percentage increase in salary for women. Moreover, education generates numerous indirect effects: it reduces the likelihood of unemployment, strengthens cognitive and non-cognitive skills, and facilitates adaptation to a constantly changing labour market (OECD, 2021).<\/p>\n

For women, these dynamics are even more decisive. In societies where wage discrimination persists, higher qualifications enable access to less feminised sectors with better pay (World Bank, 2018).<\/p>\n

Yet, even though women obtain similar or greater returns from education, a substantial gender pay gap remains. The academic literature generally explains this persistent difference through three key factors:<\/p>\n

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  1. Occupational segregation and field of study choice:<\/strong> women tend to cluster in sectors and occupations that are less well remunerated. In other words, even with the same level of education, career paths strongly influence future income. Fields dominated by women are often devalued. It is not merely that these jobs are \u201cpaid less\u201d by the market, but also that women are overrepresented in feminised fields of study and sectors \u2014 such as education, social work, or certain areas of healthcare \u2014 which tend to offer lower salaries. This limits the full realisation of educational returns (Seehuus & Str\u00f8mme, 2025).<\/li>\n
  2. Career interruptions and part-time employment:<\/strong> differences in labour market participation across the life course (for reasons such as maternity or family caregiving) reduce women\u2019s lifetime earnings. Studies that examine long-term returns find that, in some cases, women experience higher benefits from education over their working lives, but career interruptions for family-related reasons often offset those gains (Tamborini & Sakamoto, 2015).<\/li>\n
  3. Wage discrimination and corporate practices:<\/strong> even among individuals with similar educational levels and comparable occupations, gender wage gaps persist due to discriminatory remuneration, promotion, and negotiation practices. OECD reports (2022) document that, despite progress in education, gender pay disparities remain in many countries as a result of sex-based discrimination.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

    This evidence indicates that investing in education can narrow part of the wage gap by enabling women to increase their earnings proportionally more than men when accessing higher education. Although segregation by field of study and discrimination still exist, investment in educational policies can help women enter high-return sectors such as finance, technology, management, energy, or telecommunications. Achieving this requires not only raising overall educational attainment but also encouraging greater diversity in educational and career choices and tackling gender bias in academic and vocational guidance.<\/p>\n

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    International Comparison: Female Poverty and Literacy Rates<\/strong><\/h5>\n

    The relationship between education and poverty is clearly reflected in international statistics. According to UNESCO (2023), there are still 773 million illiterate adults worldwide, two-thirds of whom are women. This educational disparity translates into profound economic inequalities: women account for 70% of the global population living in extreme poverty (UN Women, 2023).<\/p>\n

    In sub-Saharan Africa, girls are 2.5 times more likely than boys to be out of school (UNICEF, 2022). In South Asia, rates of child marriage remain strongly correlated with the lack of access to secondary education. Such deficits restrict women\u2019s participation in the labour market and perpetuate the cycle of poverty (World Bank, 2018).<\/p>\n

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    Percentage of women aged 15 and over who can read and write, 2023<\/strong><\/p>\n

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    Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS), via World Bank (2025).
    Note: UNESCO literacy rates refer to the percentage of people aged 15 or older who report being able to read and write, with understanding, a short and simple statement about their daily life.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

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    The map above shows the regions of the world with the lowest levels of female literacy, such as sub-Saharan Africa and parts of South Asia, which coincide with extremely high poverty levels \u2014 confirming the close connection between women\u2019s education and economic development. However, countries that have invested in female education have made remarkable progress.<\/p>\n

    Beyond the basic link between literacy and poverty, education represents one of the most effective strategies for raising women\u2019s incomes and reducing gender gaps in the labour market. South Korea, for instance, achieved sustained economic growth largely thanks to universal schooling \u2014 including that of women \u2014 which significantly increased their participation in higher education and in the workforce (OECD, 2021). Nevertheless, achieving equality in educational opportunities does not automatically guarantee equality in income. The persistence of educational and occupational segregation, combined with career interruptions and wage discrimination, helps explain why gender pay gaps endure even in contexts where women have attained higher levels of education than men (OECD, 2022).<\/p>\n

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    Why Is Education Important for Women?<\/strong><\/h5>\n

    Investment in women\u2019s education remains decisive in reducing poverty and advancing towards economic equity. Higher levels of schooling expand women\u2019s opportunities to access formal employment, enhance their bargaining power both within the household and in the labour market, and generate positive externalities for society as a whole: greater productivity, improved child health, and sustained economic growth (World Bank, 2018). Consequently, closing the gender pay gap requires a dual strategy: on the one hand, ensuring equitable access for girls and women to all levels and fields of education; on the other, implementing labour and social policies that allow the returns on this educational investment to be effectively translated into income equality.<\/p>\n

    Investing in women\u2019s education has a multiplier effect. It not only raises individual earnings but also improves family health, nutrition, and overall well-being. A literate mother is 50% more likely to have her children vaccinated, and infant mortality rates drop significantly when women have access to primary and secondary education (UNESCO, 2023). Moreover, education reduces women\u2019s economic dependence on their partners, thereby strengthening their personal autonomy and decision-making power within both family and community settings (UN Women, 2023). From a macroeconomic perspective, the World Bank (2018) estimates that closing the global gender education gap could increase global GDP per capita by up to 20% in the long term.<\/p>\n

    Women\u2019s education is also closely linked to political and social participation. Women with higher education are more likely to hold leadership positions, contributing to institutional transformation and the promotion of more inclusive societies (OECD, 2021). Furthermore, educated women participate more frequently in the formal labour market and occupy higher-productivity jobs, contributing not only to their personal income but also to a broader tax base and more sustainable economic growth (OECD, 2022). From a social perspective, education strengthens civic capital: women with higher educational attainment are more likely to engage in community organisations, take part in electoral processes, and demand accountability from public authorities, thereby reinforcing democratic governance.<\/p>\n

    In addition, numerous studies show that women\u2019s access to education encourages greater investment in the schooling of their sons and daughters, creating a virtuous cycle of intergenerational social mobility. In rural contexts and low-income countries, the schooling of girls and adolescents is also associated with reductions in child marriage and early motherhood \u2014 factors that often irreversibly limit women\u2019s life and career opportunities (UNICEF, 2022). Taken together, this evidence confirms that investing in women\u2019s education is not merely a question of social justice, but a central strategy for human and economic development on a global scale.<\/p>\n

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    The Situation in Spain: Female Poverty and Educational Attainment<\/strong><\/h5>\n

    Spain presents an educational and labour paradox that is characteristic of Mediterranean economies: women have significantly outperformed men in academic achievement, yet this advantage has not translated into equal conditions in the labour market or wage parity.<\/p>\n

    On the one hand, women\u2019s educational attainment has increased remarkably in recent decades. In 2024, 57% of university graduates were women. Moreover, the female early school leaving rate (15.2%) was lower than that of men (18.5%) (INE, 2024). This high level of human capital places Spain above the EU average in female educational achievement.<\/p>\n

    However, this qualification stands in stark contrast to the reality of the labour market. The gender pay gap persists: on average, women earn between 18% and 20% less than men (INE, 2023). In addition, in Spain, the risk of poverty is higher among women over the age of 16, as illustrated in Figure 2.<\/p>\n

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    Source: INE (2025). Living Conditions Survey (ECV).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

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    As Figure 1 shows, the risk of poverty and social exclusion is higher among women in almost all age groups, particularly from the age of 16 onwards. This vulnerability is further exacerbated among certain groups:<\/p>\n